Acetylcholine
The neurotransmitter that inhibits cytokine release by interacting with alpha7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors Acquired/Adaptive Immune System
A subsystem of the overall immune system that is composed of highly specialized, systemic cells and processes that
eliminate or prevent pathogen growth. This process of acquired immunity is the basis of vaccination. The
acquired response is said to be "adaptive" because it prepares the body's immune system for future challenges Adrenocorticotropic hormone
A hormone produced and secreted by the anterior pituitary gland. It is an important component
of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and is often produced in response to biological stress.
Its principal effects are increased production and release of cortisol. actinomycetes Active (immunological) memory
See long-term memory Activated CTL
An army of “armed”-effector cells Adipose
Adipose tissue, or body fat, or just fat, is loose connective tissue. Its main role is to store energy
in the form of lipids, although it also cushions and insulates the body. Far from hormonally inert, adipose
tissue has, in recent years, been recognized as a major endocrine organ, as it produces hormones such as
leptin, estrogen, resistin, and the cytokine TNFα Adjuvant
A component that potentiates the immune response to an antigen and/or modulates it towards the desired immune responses Agonist
A chemical that binds to a receptor and activates the receptor to produce a biological response. Whereas an agonist causes
an action, an antagonist blocks the action of the agonist and an inverse agonist causes an action opposite to that of the
agonist Alkaloid
Alkaloids are a group of naturally occurring chemical compounds (natural products) that contain mostly basic nitrogen
atoms. This group also includes some related compounds with neutral and even weakly acidic properties. Some synthetic
compounds of similar structure are also termed alkaloids. In addition to carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen,
alkaloids may also contain oxygen, sulfur, and more rarely other elements such as chlorine, bromine, and
phosphorus. Alkaloids are produced by a large variety of organisms including bacteria, fungi, plants, and
animals Allergen
Any substance that elicits the adaptive immune response (must stand for 'allergy generator') Allergy
A hypersensitivity disorder of the immune system Alternative Acquired Immune System
Is this simply the adaptive/acquired immune system? Amplified Mold Growth Anabolic
Anabolism is the set of metabolic pathways that construct molecules from smaller units. These reactions require
energy. One way of categorizing metabolic processes, whether at the cellular, organ or organism level,
is as "anabolic", or as "catabolic" which is the opposite. Anabolism is powered by catabolism,
where large molecules are broken down into smaller parts and then used up in respiration Anecdote
A short and amusing but serious account, which may depict a real/fake incident or character Angiogenesis
Angiogenesis is the physiological process through which new blood vessels form from pre-existing vessels Antigento top
This is an abbreviation for antibody generator; can be recogizing as "self" (originates from the host),
or as "non-self" (originates externally, or internally from distressed conditions). This distinction
is very important in triggering an immune response to foreign invaders Antigen presenting cells
(An accessory cell) A cell that displays foreign antigens complexed with major histocompatibility complexes (MHCs) on
their surfaces; this process is known as antigen presentation Antigen receptor
Can be a B-cell recetor or a T-cell receptor of the adaptive immune system Anti-idiotypes
Antigen receptors that react with the idiotype as if it were a foreign antigen Apoptosis
Programmed cell death “Armed”-effector cells
Activated CTL Allergy
A term used to cover health conditions ranging from life-threatening to merely irritating. In allergic conditions, the
immune system recognizes some incoming agent (often a protein) that is foreign to the person, and (in some cases)
over-reacts to the situation, producing agents (like histamines) which do no good, but increase the irritation Anaphylaxis
Either the problem or the cure for a reaction to mold toxins which can result in some form of paralysis and/or death if
not treated promptly Antibody
Proteins also known as immunoglobulins. Antibodies travel through the bloodstream and bind to the foreign antigen, which
causes the antigen to inactivate Antidiuretic
An antidiuretic is an agent or drug that, when administered to an organism, helps control body water balance by
reducing urination Antigen receptor
See T cell receptor Atopic syndrome
A predisposition toward developing certain allergic hypersensitivity reactions. Atopy may have a hereditary component,
although contact with the allergen must occur before the hypersensitivity reaction can develop AutoAntibodies
An autoantibody is an antibody (a type of protein) produced by the immune system that is directed against one or
more of the individual's own proteins. Many autoimmune diseases are caused by such autoantibodies Autocrine signaling
A form of cell signaling in which a cell secretes a hormone or chemical messenger (called the autocrine agent) that
binds to autocrine receptors on that same cell, leading to changes in the cell. This can be contrasted with paracrine
signaling, intracrine signaling, or classical endocrine signaling Autoimmunityto top
The system of immune responses of an organism against its own cells and tissues. Any disease that results from such an
aberrant immune response is termed an autoimmune disease Autolysis
In biology, autolysis, more commonly known as self-digestion, refers to the destruction of a cell through
the action of its own enzymes. It may also refer to the digestion of an enzyme by another molecule of the same enzyme Autonomic (nervous system)
A division of the peripheral nervous system that influences the function of internal organs ~~~~ B
Bacterial Toxin
Some bacteria generate toxins which can be classified as either exotoxins or endotoxins. Exotoxins are generated and actively
secreted; endotoxins remain part of the bacteria. Usually, an endotoxin is part of the bacterial outer
membrane, and it is not released until the bacterium is killed by the immune system (just like mold toxins).
The body's response to an endotoxin can involve severe inflammation. In general, the inflammation process is
usually considered beneficial to the infected host, but if the reaction is severe enough, it can lead to sepsis Basophil granulocytes (basophils)
The least common of the granulocytes. This cell type stores histamine, a chemical that is secreted by the cells
when stimulated. Also, one of the class of innate leukocyte cells. When activated by a pathogen encounter,
basophils releasing histamine are important in defense against parasites, and play a role in allergic
reactions (such as asthma)
Basophilic
Susceptible to staining by basic dyes B cells (lymphocytes)
One of the major types of lymphocytes (white blood cells); In antibody responses, B cells are activated to
secrete antibodies; each of which recognizes a unique antigen, and neutralizes specific pathogens.
B cells express a unique B cell receptor (BCR), in this case, an immobilized antibody molecule.
B cells recognize antigens in their native form. Once a B cell encounters its cognate (or specific)
antigen (and receives additional signals from a helper T cell (predominately Th2 type)), it further
differentiates into an effector cell, known as a plasma cell. B cells play a large role in the humoral
immune response. Biofilm
Any group of microorganisms in which cells stick to each other on a surface Biotoxin
A poisonous substance produced within living cells or organisms. Biotoxins can be small molecules, peptides,
or proteins that are capable of causing disease on contact with or absorption by body tissues interacting with biological
macromolecules such as enzymes or cellular receptors.
Biotoxin illness
Any of a variety of illness's caused by a biotoxin BiPAP
Bilevel Positive Airway Pressure Blood-Brain-Barrier
A highly selective permeability barrier that separates the circulating blood from the brain extracellular fluid in the
central nervous system. The blood–brain barrier allows the passage of water, some gases, and lipid-soluble
molecules by passive diffusion, as well as the selective transport of molecules such as glucose and amino acids that
are crucial to neural function. On the other hand, the blood–brain barrier may prevent the entry of
lipophilic, potential neurotoxins by way of an active transport mechanism mediated by P-glycoprotein. Bradykinin
A chemical factor produced during inflammation which sensitizes pain receptors, causes vasodilation of the
blood vessels at the scene, and attracts phagocytes, especially neutrophils ~~~~ C
C4-A
Complement C4-A is a protein that in humans is encoded by the C4A gene Candida
a genus of yeasts and is the most common cause of fungal infections worldwide Cationicto top
Eosinophil Cationic Protein (ECP) also known as ribonuclease 3 is a basic protein located in the eosinophil primary matrix.
In humans, the eosinophil cationic protein is encoded by the RNASE3 gene. ECP is released during degranulation of
eosinophils. This protein is related to inflammation and asthma because in these cases, there are increased levels
of ECP in the body Caudate CD1d-restricted Natural Killer T cells
A CD1d-restricted Natural Killer T cell is one of a number of 'unconventional' T cell subsets bearing invariant TCRs CD8+ T lymphocyte
Most cytotoxic T cells express T-cell receptors (TCRs) that can recognize a specific antigen. An antigen is a molecule
capable of stimulating an immune response, and is often produced by cancer cells or viruses. Antigens inside a cell
are bound to class I MHC molecules, and brought to the surface of the cell by the class I MHC molecule, where they
can be recognized by the T cell. If the TCR is specific for that antigen, it binds to the complex of the
class I MHC molecule and the antigen and the T cell destroys the cell.
In order for the TCR to bind to the class I MHC molecule, the former must be accompanied by a glycoprotein called CD8,
which binds to the constant portion of the class I MHC molecule. Therefore, these T cells are called CD8+ T cells CD4+ helper T-cell
CD4+ lymphocytes, or helper T cells, are immune response mediators, and play an important role in
establishing and maximizing the capabilities of the acquired immune response. These cells have no cytotoxic or
phagocytic activity. Helper T-cells require a much milder activation stimulus than cytotoxic T cells.
Helper T cells can provide extra signals that "help" activate cytotoxic cells CD8+ αβ T cells
Alpha Beta T cells (incomplete definition) CD8+ cytotoxic T-cell
A cytotoxic T cell (also known as TC, cytotoxic T lymphocyte, CTL, T-killer cell, cytolytic T cell, CD8+ T-cells or
killer T cell) is a T lymphocyte (a type of white blood cell) that kills cancer cells, cells that are infected
(particularly with viruses), or cells that are damaged in other ways. (incomplete definition) Cell-Mediated Immunity
The immunity provided by the acquired or addaptive immune system Chemokinesto top
A family of small cytokines, or signaling proteins secreted by cells. Their name is derived from their ability to
induce directed chemotaxis in nearby responsive cells; they are chemotactic cytokines. Released by mast cells Chemotactic cytokines
A family of small cytokines, or signaling proteins secreted by cells. Their name is derived from their ability to
induce directed chemotaxis in nearby responsive cells; they are chemotactic cytokines. Released by mast cells Cholestatis
Reduction in the rate of bile movement Cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway
The motor arc of the inflammatory reflex is termed the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway Cilia
Cilia are slender protuberances that project from the much larger cell body Class I genes
MHC class I genes provide instructions for making proteins that are present on the surface of almost all cells.
On the cell surface, these proteins are bound to protein fragments (peptides) that have been exported
from within the cell. MHC class I proteins display these peptides t0o the immune system. If the
immune system recognizes the peptides as foreign (such as viral or bacterial peptides), it responds
by destroying the infected cell. Class II genes
A class II gene is a type of gene that codes for a protein Clone
A clone is a group of identical cells that share a common ancestry, meaning they are derived from the same cell Clonal expansion
The process of cloning a cell or cells Clonal selection hypothesis
Since 1974, this hypothesis has been developed mainly by Niels Jerne and Geoffrey W. Hoffmann, and is seen as being
relevant to the understanding of the HIV pathogenesis and the search for an HIV vaccine Clonotypeto top
The unique set of antigenic determinants of the variable portion of an antibody Coagulase
Coagulase is a protein enzyme produced by several microorganisms that enables the conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin. In
the laboratory, it is used to distinguish between different types of Staphylococcus isolates Coagulation system
The coagulation system overlaps with the immune system. Some products of the coagulation system can contribute to the non-specific
defenses by their ability to increase vascular permeability and act as chemotactic agents for phagocytic cells. In addition,
some of the products of the coagulation system are directly antimicrobial. For example, beta-lysine, a protein produced
by platelets during coagulation, can cause lysis of many Gram-positive bacteria by acting as a cationic detergent. Many
acute-phase proteins of inflammation are involved in the coagulation system. Also increased levels of lactoferrin and transferrin
inhibit bacterial growth by binding iron, an essential nutrient for bacteria. Cognate antigen
A specific antigen Cluster form
A type of arrangement of gene segments Complement
The complement system is a part of the immune system that helps or complements the ability of antibodies and
phagocytic cells to clear pathogens from an organism. It is part of the innate immune system, which is not adaptable
and does not change over the course of an individual's lifetime. However, it can be recruited and brought into action
by the adaptive immune system. Complement activation
When stimulated by one of several triggers, proteases in the complement system cleave specific proteins to release
cytokines and initiate an amplifying cascade of further cleavages. A part of the humoral (innate) immune mechanism Complement cascade
The complement system is a biochemical cascade of the immune system that helps, or “complements”, the ability of
antibodies to clear pathogens or mark them for destruction by other cells. The complement system consists of a number of small
proteins found in the blood, in general synthesized by the liver, and normally circulating as inactive precursors (pro-proteins).
When stimulated by one of several triggers, proteases in the system cleave specific proteins to release cytokines and initiate
an amplifying cascade of further cleavages. The end-result of this activation cascade is massive amplification of the response
and activation of the cell-killing membrane attack complex. Activation of the complement cascade is one of the major functions
of the innate immune system Complement C3 fragmentsto top
Opsonins recognized by the CR1 complement receptor on phagocytic cells Complementarity Determining Regions
Complementarity determining regions (CDRs) are part of the variable chains in immunoglobulins (antibodies)
and T cell receptors, generated by B-cells and T-cells respectively, where these molecules bind to their
specific antigen. As the most variable parts of the molecules, CDRs are crucial to the diversity of antigen
specificities generated by lymphocytes. Conidia
Asexual, non-motile spores of a fungus Contractility
Contractility refers to the ability for self-contraction, especially of the muscles, or similar active biological
tissue Cortisol
Cortisol is a steroid hormone, and is produced in the adrenal cortex within the adrenal gland. It is released in
response to stress and low blood glucose CR1 complement receptor
Complement receptor type 1 (CR1) also known as C3b/C4b receptor or CD35 (cluster of differentiation 35) is a protein
that in humans is encoded by the CR1 gene. This gene is a member of the regulators of complement activation
(RCA) family and is located in the 'cluster RCA' region of chromosome 1 Crohn’s disease
A type of inflammatory bowel disease that may affect any part of the gastrointestinal tract from mouth to anus Chronic inflammatory response syndrome (CIRS)
The host response is not being regulated. A model for us is sepsis, which creates a storm of all these inflammatory responses.
We used to think that you got the sepsis out of the blood stream and the cytokines went home, but that’s not the case. Once
this illness gets started, there can be longer-lived inflammatory markers and the illness becomes chronic. So we call it a
chronic inflammatory response syndrome. What this means is that if the body gets out of kilter, then even if you remove
the biotoxins, the body somehow does not know how to right the ship. It kind of needs to get rebooted. C-Type lectin receptor
Many different cells involved in innate immune system, starting from cells as complex as immature dendritic cells to
cells as small as platelets, express myriad C-type Lectin Receptors which shape innate immunity by virtue of their
pattern recognition ability Cyanotoxin
Toxins produced by bacteria called cyanobacteria (also known as blue-green algae). Cyanobacteria are found almost
everywhere, but particularly in lakes and in the ocean where, under certain conditions, they reproduce
exponentially to form blooms. Blooming cyanobacteria can produce cyanotoxins in such concentrations that they poison
and even kill animals and humans Cytokine
Cytokines are a broad and loose category of small proteins that are important in cell signaling. They are released by cells
and affect the behavior of other cells. For example, the activation of a naive helper T-cell causes it to release
cytokines, which influence the activity of many cell types, including the APC (Antigen-Presenting Cell)
that activated it. Cytokines produced during innate immune responses are among the activators of adaptive immune
responses. Cytokines are specialized chemical mediators Cytokine receptor Cytokine storm Cytolysis
Cytolysis, or osmotic lysis, occurs when a cell bursts due to an osmotic imbalance that has caused excess water to move into the cell.
It occurs in a hypotonic environment, where water moves into the cell by osmosis and causes its volume to increase to the point where
the volume exceeds the membrane's capacity and the cell bursts. The presence of a cell wall prevents the membrane from bursting, so
cytolysis only occurs in animal and protozoa cells which do not have cell walls Cytolytic antibodies
A major killing mechanism of some monoclonal antibodies Cytosine
One of the four main bases found in DNA and RNA, along with adenine, guanine, and thymine (uracil in RNA) Cytotoxicto top
Cytotoxicity is the quality of being toxic to cells. Examples of toxic agents are an immune cell or some types of venom Cytotoxic T-Cell
Cytotoxic T cells (also known as TC, killer T cell, or cytotoxic T-lymphocyte (CTL)) are a sub-group of
T cells that induce the death of cells that are infected with viruses (and other pathogens), or are otherwise damaged
or dysfunctional Cytotoxic T-Lymphocyte
See Cytotoxic T-Cell ~~~~ D
"Danger" signal
Generated by a threshold level of antigen; this signal activates dendritic cells Deamidated
Deamidated gliadin is produced by acid or enzymatic treatment of gluten. The enzyme tissue transglutaminase converts some
of the abundant glutamines to glutamic acid. This is done because gliadins are soluble in alcohol and cannot be mixed with
other foods (like milk) without changing the foods' qualities. Deamidated gliadin is soluble in water. Deaminase
Deamination is the removal of an amine group from a molecule. Enzymes that catalyse this reaction are called deaminases Dendrite
The branched projection of a neuron that acts to propagate the electrochemical stimulation received from other neural cells to
the cell body, or soma, of the neuron from which the dendrite projects Dendritic cell
[innate immune system]
Dendritic cells (DC) are phagocytic cells present in tissues that are in contact with the external environment, mainly
the skin (where they are often called Langerhans cells), and the inner mucosal lining of the nose, lungs,
stomach, and intestines. They are named for their resemblance to neuronal dendrites, but dendritic cells are not
connected to the nervous system. Dendritic cells are very important in the process of antigen presentation, and serve as
a link between the innate and adaptive immune systems
[acquired immune system]
Dendritic cells (one of the phagocyte-tyhpe cells) engulf exogenous pathogens, such as bacteria, parasites or
toxins in the tissues and then migrate, via chemotactic signals, to the T cell-enriched lymph nodes. Also,
The dendritic cell uses enzymes to chop the pathogen into smaller pieces, called antigens. A pathogen is, in this
case, an antigen, because when detected, it is an antibody generator (an antigen) Desquamationto top
The shedding of the outermost membrane or layer of a tissue, such as the skin. Also called skin peeling Detoxication
Detoxication differs from detoxification. Detoxification is the process of removing toxins from the body, while
detoxication is the process of preventing toxic entities from entering the body in the first place. Detoxication occurs
in the liver and kidneys, through biotransformation: a series of chemical alterations of a compound
(e.g., a drug) occurring within the body, as by enzymatic activity. Often this occurs as conjugation
with a polar compound making it less toxic and or easier to excrete Deuterostomes
Pre-vertebrate class of animal (i.e., sea urchins) Diastolic dysfunction
The decline in performance of one (usually the left ventricle) or both (left and right) ventricles during
diastole. Diastole is the cardiac cycle phase during which the heart is relaxing and filling with incoming blood that is
being returned from the body dinoflagellate
Most dinoflagellates are marine plankton, but they are common in fresh water habitats as well. Their populations
are distributed depending on temperature, salinity, or depth. Many dinoflagellates are known to be
photosynthetic, but a large fraction of these are in fact mixotrophic, combining photosynthesis with ingestion of
prey Dysbiosis
Refers to microbial imbalance on or inside the body. Dysbiosis is most commonly reported as a condition in the digestive tract Dyslipidemia
Dyslipidemia is an abnormal amount of lipids (e.g. cholesterol and/or fat) in the blood. In developed countries,
most dyslipidemias are hyperlipidemias; that is, an elevation of lipids in the blood. This is often due to diet
and lifestyle. Prolonged elevation of insulin levels can also lead to dyslipidemia ~~~~ E
Edema
An abnormal accumulation of fluid in the interstitium, located beneath the skin and in the cavities of the body Effector cell (CTL)
Also known as a plasma cell. These cells release perforin and granulysin: cytotoxins that form pores in the target cell's
plasma membrane, allowing ions and water to flow into the infected cell, and causing it to burst or lyse. CTL also release
granzyme, a serine protease that enters cells via pores to induce apoptosis (cell death) Emulsification
The process of mixing two or more liquids that are normally immiscible (unmixable or unblendable Endocytic membrane transport pathway
Molecules internalized from the plasma membrane can follow this pathway all the way to lysosomes for degradation, or they
can be recycled back to the plasma membrane Endocytosis
An energy-using process by which cells absorb molecules (such as proteins) by engulfing them. It is used by
all cells of the body because most substances important to them are large polar molecules that cannot pass through the hydrophobic
plasma or cell membrane. The opposite process is exocytosis Endogenous
Endogenous substances are those that originate from within an organism, tissue, or cell Endogenous antigens
Endogenous antigens are produced by intracellular bacteria and viruses replicating within a host cell. The host cell uses enzymes
to digest virally associated proteins, and displays these pieces on its surface to T-cells by coupling them to MHC Endogenous retrovirus
(ERVs) are activated and produced in high quantities during the implantation of an embryo in the mother. They are
currently known to possess immunosuppressive properties, suggesting a role in protecting the embryo from its mother's
immune system. The human genome project found several thousand ERVs classified into 24 families. Also see viral fusion protein. Endorphins
Endogenous opioid neuropeptides. They are produced by the central nervous system and pituitary gland. The term implies
a pharmacological activity as opposed to a specific chemical formulation. It consists of two parts: endo- and -orphin;
these are short forms of the words endogenous and morphine, intended to mean "a morphine-like substance originating
from within the body. The principal function of endorphins is to inhibit the transmission of pain signals; they may
also produce a feeling of euphoria very similar to that produced by other opioids. Endosome
An endosome is a membrane-bounded compartment inside eukaryotic cells. It is a compartment of the endocytic membrane transport pathway
from the plasma membrane to the lysosome. Molecules internalized from the plasma membrane can follow this pathway all the way to
lysosomes for degradation, or they can be recycled back to the plasma membrane enteric
The enteric nervous system (ENS) or intrinsic nervous system is one of the main divisions of the nervous system and
consists of a mesh-like system of neurons that governs the function of the gastrointestinal system. It is now usually
referred to as separate from the autonomic nervous system since it has its own independent reflex activity Enterohepatic recirculation Eosinophils
Known as granulocytes due to the presence of granules in their cytoplasm. Upon activation, eosinophils secrete a range of
highly toxic proteins and free radicals that are highly effective in killing bacteria and parasites, but are also responsible
for tissue damage occurring during allergic reactions. Activation and toxin release by eosinophils is, therefore, tightly
regulated to prevent any inappropriate tissue destruction. Epidemiological Epitheliumto top
Epithelium is one of the four basic types of animal tissue, along with connective tissue, muscle tissue and nervous tissue.
Epithelial tissues line the cavities and surfaces of structures throughout the body. Many glands are made up of epithelial cells.
Functions of epithelial cells include secretion, selective absorption, protection, transcellular transport and detection of
sensation. Epithelial layers contain no blood vessels, so they must receive nourishment via diffusion of substances from the
underlying connective tissue, through the basement membrane.
Epithelial surfaces act as a physical and chemical barrier to infectious agents Epitope
The part of an antigen that interacts with an antibody molecule or a lymphocyte receptor Erythrocyte
Red blood cells (RBCs), also called erythrocytes, are the most common type of blood cell and the vertebrate organism's
principal means of delivering oxygen (O2) to the body tissues--via blood flow through the circulatory system. RBCs take
up oxygen in the lungs or gills and release it into tissues while squeezing through the body's capillaries. Eukaryote>
A eukaryote is any organism whose cells contain a nucleus and other organelles enclosed within membranes Exfoliation
Exfoliation involves the removal of the oldest dead skin cells on the skin's outermost surface, and has been used for many years
to help maintain healthy skin. Exfoliation is involved in the process of all facials, during microdermabrasion or chemical
peels at medical spas Exogenous
An action or object originating externally. It contrasts with endogeny or endogeneity, the fact of being influenced
within a system Exogenous antigens
Antigens that are recognized as 'non-self' Extreme Mold Avoidance
Attempt to combat the effects of mold illness by extreme physical conditioning (colloquial) ~~~~ F
Fascia
Connective tissue fibers, primarily collagen, that form sheets or bands beneath the skin to attach, stabilize,
enclose, and separate muscles and other internal organs Fibromyalgia Ficolins ~~~~ G
Ganglia
A nerve cell cluster or a group of nerve cell bodies located in the autonomic nervous system Genomics
Genomics is a discipline in genetics that applies recombinant DNA, DNA sequencing methods, and bioinformatics to
sequence, assemble, and analyze the function and structure of genomes (the complete set of DNA within a
single cell of an organism. Advances in genomics have triggered a revolution in discovery-based research to understand
even the most complex biological systems such as the brain Genotype
That part (DNA sequence) of the genetic makeup of a cell, and therefore of an organism or individual,
which determines a specific characteristic (phenotype) of that cell/organism/individual. Genotype is one
of three factors that determine phenotype, the other two being inherited epigenetic factors, and non-inherited
environmental factors Ghrelin
Ghrelin (pronounced "GREL-in"), the "hunger hormone", is a peptide hormone produced by ghrelinergic
cells in the gastrointestinal tract which functions as a neuropeptide in the central nervous system. Besides regulating
appetite, ghrelin also plays a significant role in regulating the distribution and rate of use of energy Glial cell
Glial cells are non-neuronal cells that maintain homeostasis, form myelin, and provide support and protection for
neurons in the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system Gliosis
When we get MRI’s, we’ll see a lot of scarring or unidentified bright objects, which we now call gliosis Glycogenolysis
The breakdown of glycogen (n) to glucose-6-phosphate and glycogen (n-1) Gnathostomesto top
A class of animal. Gnathostomata are the jawed vertebrates. Gnathostome diversity comprises roughly 60,000 species,
which accounts for 99% of all living vertebrates. In addition to opposing jaws, living gnathostomes also have teeth,
paired appendages, and a horizontal semicircular canal of the inner ear, along with physiological and
cellular anatomical characters such as the myelin sheathes of neurons. Another is an adaptive immune system that
uses V(D)J recombination to create antigen recognition sites, rather than using genetic recombination in the
variable lymphocyte receptor gene Granulocyte
Granulocytes are a category of white blood cells characterized by the presence of granules in their cytoplasm.
This cell type stores histamine, a chemical that is secreted by the cells when stimulated Granulysin
A cytotoxin, that along with perforin, forms pores in the target cell's plasma membrane, allowing ions
and water to flow into the infected cell, and causing it to burst or lyse Granzyme
A serine protease that enters cells via pores to induce apoptosis (cell death) Gut
The tube by which bilaterian animals (including humans) transfer food to the digestive organs ~~~~ H
Haplotype
A haplotype is, in the simplest terms, a specific group of genes that a progeny inherits from one parent.
There are, however, several specific definitions of the term being used in the field of genetics. First,
it is a portmanteau word for haploid genotype, which is a collection of specific alleles (that is, specific
DNA sequences) in a cluster of tightly-linked genes on a chromosome that are likely to be inherited together—that is,
they are likely to be conserved as a sequence that survives the descent of many generations of reproduction HbS clusters Band-3
A major integral red cell protein. Clustered Band 3 proteins with attached antibodies activate complement Heat-labile
Heat-sensitive? Hepatocyte
A hepatocyte is a cell of the main parenchymal tissue of the liver. Hepatocytes make up 70-85% of the liver's mass.
These cells are involved in protein synthesis and storage, transformation of carbohydrates, synthesis of
cholesterol, bile salts and phospholipids, detoxification, modification, and excretion of exogenous and endogenous
substances, and initiation of formation and secretion of bile
Helper T-cells
Helper T cells (or CD4+ lymphocytes) are immune response mediators, and play an important role in
establishing and maximizing the capabilities of the acquired immune response. These cells have no cytotoxic or
phagocytic activity, and cannot kill infected cells or clear pathogens, but, in essence
"manage" the immune response, by directing other cells to perform these tasks.
Helper T cells also express T cell receptors (TCR) that recognize antigen bound to Class II MHC molecules.
The activation of a naive helper T-cell causes it to release cytokines, which influences the activity of
many cell types, including the APC (Antigen-Presenting Cell) that activated it. Helper T-cells
require a much milder activation stimulus than cytotoxic T cells. Helper T cells can provide extra signals
that "help" activate cytotoxic cells
Hematopoietic stem cell
Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) are the blood cells that give rise to all the other blood cells and are derived from
mesoderm. They are located in the red bone marrow, which is contained in the core of most bones Heparinto top
A granule released by mast cells Hepatocytes
Part of the 'complement cascade', these entities synthesize, in the liver, plasma proteins HERTSMI-2 (a test)
The HERTSMI-2 test was developed by Dr. Ritchie Shoemaker based on looking at the ERMI results of thousands of mold illness
patients in his database. It uses the same genetic testing as the ERMI but considers only five particularly problematic molds
Shoemaker states that the test is particularly useful for allowing people who already have been made sick by toxic mold to
determine if a new building is safe enough for them to occupy. In 2014, the HERTSMI-2 was available for $125 from Mycometrics.
The HERTSMI-2 score also can be calculated from an ERMI result Herxheimer reaction
The Jarisch-Herxheimer reaction is a reaction to endotoxin-like products released by the death of harmful microorganisms
within the body during antibiotic treatment Histamine
A chemical factor produced during inflammation which sensitizes pain receptors, causes vasodilation of the
blood vessels at the scene, and attracts phagocytes, especially neutrophils. Also, a granule released by
mast cells. Histamine dilates blood vessels, causing the characteristic signs of inflammation, and recruits
neutrophils and macrophages Histiocytes
A histiocyte is an animal cell that is part of the mononuclear phagocyte system; a part of the organism's immune system.
The histiocyte is a tissue macrophage or a dendritic cell Human Leukocyte Antigen (system)
The HLA system is the locus of genes that encode for proteins on the surface of cells that are
responsible for regulation of the immune system in humans. The HLA genes are the human versions of the major
histocompatibility complex (MHC) genes that are found in most vertebrates.
This group of genes resides on chromosome 6, and encodes cell-surface antigen-presenting proteins (plus other
functions). The proteins encoded by these genes are also known as antigens (antibody generator). The major HLAs
are essential elements for immune function. Different classes have different functions: HLAs corresponding to MHC
class II (including HLA DR) present antigens from outside of the cell (the invading biotoxin) to
T-lymphocytes. These particular antigens stimulate the multiplication of T-helper cells, which in turn stimulate
antibody-producing B-cells to produce antibodies to that specific antigen.
HLA Susceptible
The term 'HLA Susceptible' refers to the combinations of genes in humans which make mold exposure particularly
troublesome because the system for disposing of the biotoxins in a normal way has been compromised genetically. In these
cases, biotoxins taken in tend to remain in the system, and continue to wreak havoc chemically. The most
dreaded of the 'HLA Susceptible' gene combinations is that recognized as HLA DR.
HMGB1
A cytokines produced by macrophages and other cells of the innate immune system which mediate the inflammatory response Homeostasis
The property of a system in which variables are regulated so that internal conditions remain stable and relatively constant.
Examples of homeostasis include the regulation of temperature and the balance between acidity and alkalinity (pH).
It is a process that maintains the stability of the human body's internal environment in response to changes in external
conditions. Humoral
Humoral immunity, also called the antibody-mediated beta cellularis immune system, is the aspect of immunity that is
mediated by macromolecules (as opposed to cell-mediated immunity) found in extracellular fluids such as secreted antibodies,
complement proteins and certain antimicrobial peptides. Humoral immunity is so named because it involves substances found
in the humours, or body fluids Humoral immune response
The response to a pathogen from the innate immune system Hydrocortisone
Hydrocortisone is a name for cortisol when it is used as a medication. Hydrocortisone is used to treat people who lack
adequate naturally generated cortisol. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines needed in
a basic health system. Humoral Immunity
The immunity provided by the innate immune system Hypoperfusion
reduction in blood flow Hypothalamic
Apparently of, or from, the hypothalamus portion of the brain ~~~~ I
Idiotypesto top
The unique molecular features of one clonotype, i.e. the unique set of antigenic determinants of the variable portion
of an antibody IgA
A type of imunoglobin (or antibody), which differs from the other types in biological properties; each has evolved
to handle different kinds of antigens. Breast milk contains antibodies (mainly IgA) that are transferred
to the gut of the infant, protecting against bacterial infections, until the newborn can synthesize
its own antibodies IgD
A type of imunoglobin (or antibody), which differs from the other types in biological properties; each has
evolved to handle different kinds of antigens. IgE
A type of imunoglobin (or antibody), which differs from the other types in biological properties; each has
evolved to handle different kinds of antigens. This imunoglobin has been said to be an indicator in blood tests of the
presence of commonplace mold allergies IgG
A type of imunoglobin (or antibody), which differs from the other types in biological properties; each has
evolved to handle different kinds of antigens. Testing for this imunoglobin can indicate the exposure to toxins from the
Stachybotrys mold IgM
A type of imunoglobin (or antibody), which differs from the other types in biological properties; each has
evolved to handle different kinds of antigens. IgW
A type of imunoglobin (or antibody), which differs from the other types in biological properties; each has
evolved to handle different kinds of antigens. IL-1
A cytokine produced by macrophages and other cells of the innate immune system which mediates the inflammatory response Interleukin 4
A cytokine that induces differentiation of naive helper T cells (Th0 cells) to Th2 cells Immune Network Theory
A theoretical framework explaining the workings of the acquired immune system Immunizationto top
Immunization (commonly referred to as vaccination) is the deliberate induction of an immune response.
Immunizations are successful because they utilize the immune system's natural specificity as well as its inducibility.
The principle behind immunization is to introduce an antigen, derived from a disease-causing organism, that
stimulates the immune system to develop protective immunity against that organism, but that does not itself cause
the pathogenic effects of that organism.
Most viral vaccines are based on live attenuated viruses, whereas many bacterial vaccines are based on acellular
components of microorganisms, including harmless toxin components. Many antigens derived from acellular
vaccines do not strongly induce an acquired response, and most bacterial vaccines require the addition of adjuvants
that activate the antigen-presenting cells of the innate immune system to enhance immunogenicity. immunocompetent
Immunocompetence is the ability of the body to produce a normal immune response following exposure to an antigen.
Immunocompetence is the opposite of immunodeficiency or immuno-incompetent or immuno-compromised immunoglobulin (Ig)
large Y-shaped proteins used by the immune system to identify and neutralize foreign objects. In mammals,
there are five types of antibody: IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM, differing in biological
properties; each has evolved to handle different kinds of antigens Immunologic adjuvant
An immunologic adjuvant is defined as any substance that acts to accelerate, prolong, or enhance antigen-specific immune
responses when used in combination with specific vaccine antigens. Adjuvants have been whimsically called the dirty little
secret of vaccines in the scientific community. This dates from the early days of commercial vaccine manufacture, when
significant variations in the effectiveness of different batches of the same vaccine were observed, correctly assumed to
be due to contamination of the reaction vessels. However, it was soon found that more scrupulous attention to cleanliness
actually seemed to reduce the effectiveness of the vaccines, and that the contaminants – "dirt" – actually enhanced the
immune response. Immunological diversity
For the acquired response to "remember" and eliminate a large number of pathogens the immune system must be able to distinguish
between many different antigens, and the receptors that recognize antigens must be produced in a huge variety of configurations,
in essence one receptor (at least) for each different pathogen that might ever be encountered. Even in the absence of
antigen stimulation, a human is capable of producing more than 1 trillion different antibody molecules.
Myriad receptors are produced through a process known as clonal selection. According to the clonal selection theory, at birth,
an animal will randomly generate a vast diversity of lymphocytes (each bearing a unique antigen receptor) from information encoded
in a small family of genes. In order to generate each unique antigen receptor, these genes will have undergone a process called
V(D)J recombination, or combinatorial diversification, in which one gene segment recombines with other gene segments to form a
single unique gene. It is this assembly process that generates the enormous diversity of receptors and antibodies, before the
body ever encounters antigens, and enables the immune system to respond to an almost unlimited diversity of antigens.
It is important to note that the innate and acquired portions of the immune system work together and not in spite of each other.
The acquired arm, B and T cells, would be unable to function without the input of the innate system. T cells are useless
without antigen-presenting cells to activate them, and B cells are crippled without T cell help. On the other hand,
the innate system would likely be overrun with pathogens without the specialized action of the acquired immune response. Immunological memoryto top
Memory cells form a database of effective B and T lymphocytes. Upon interaction with a previously encountered antigen,
the appropriate memory cells are selected and activated. In this manner, the second and subsequent exposures to an
antigen produce a stronger and faster immune response. This is "adaptive" because the body's immune system
prepares itself for future challenges, but is "maladaptive" of course if the receptors are autoimmune.
Immunological memory can be in the form of either passive short-term memory or active long-term memory Immunodeficiency Immunodepressive
Also called immunosuppressive Immunosuppressive
Suppression of the immune system, such as in the protection of an embryo from its mother's immune system Inflammation
One of the first responses of the immune system to infection or irritation. Inflammation
is stimulated by chemical factors released by injured cells and serves to establish a physical barrier against the
spread of infection, and to promote healing of any damaged tissue Innate Immune System
The most important defense system of invertebrates and plants. Its major functions are:
• Recruiting immune cells to sites of infection (via cytokines)
• Activation of the complement cascade
• The identification and removal of foreign substances by specialised white blood cells
• Activation of the adaptive immune system through antigen presentation
• Acting as a physical (how so? - epithelial surfaces) and chemical barrier to infectious agents
Inflammatory Reflex
The Inflammatory Reflex is a prototypical neural circuit that controls cytokine production in spleen. Action potentials transmitted
via the vagus nerve to spleen mediate the release of acetylcholine, the neurotransmitter that inhibits cytokine release by
interacting with alpha7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (CHRNA7) expressed on cytokine-producing cells. The motor
arc of the inflammatory reflex is termed the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway. Inflammatory responseto top
The inflammatory response is characterized by the following symptoms
• redness
• heat
• swelling>
• pain
• possible dysfunction of the organs or tissues involved
Interferon
Interferons (IFNs) are proteins made and released by host cells in response to the presence of pathogens, such as
viruses, bacteria, parasites, or tumor cells Interferon-gamma
A cytokine which activates the bactericidal activities of macrophages, and induces B cells to make
opsonizing (coating) and complement-fixing antibodies, and leads to "cell-mediated immunity" Interleukin 4
The interleukin 4 (IL4) is a cytokine that induces differentiation of naive helper T cells (Th0 cells) to
Th2 cells.... Or, a cytokine which results in the activation of B cells to make neutralizing non-cytolytic
antibodies [different parts of Wikipedia] Intraepithelial
Intraepithelial lymphocytes (IEL) are lymphocytes found in the epithelial layer of mammalian mucosal linings,
such as the gastrointestinal (GI) tract Ionophore
A lipid-soluble molecule usually synthesized by microorganisms to transport ions across the lipid bilayer of the cell membrane ~~~~ J
Junctional diversity
Junctional diversity describes the DNA sequence variations introduced by the improper joining of gene segments
during the process of V(D)J recombination. This process of V(D)J recombination has vital roles for the
vertebrate immune system, as it is able to generate a huge repertoire of different T-cell receptor (TCR)
and immunoglobulin molecules required for pathogen antigen recognition by T-cells and B cells, respectively.
The inaccuracies of joining provided by junctional diversity is estimated to triple the diversity initially
generated by these V(D)J recombinations Junk DNA
Back when they had the human genome project, 98% of the DNA that was isolated didn’t have a known function. It was
called “junk DNA.” Turns out it wasn’t junk, because in it are a whole slew of regulatory RNA’s. So now when we talk
about things like VIP, it will change surfaces of mucous membranes to let germs come in that make biofilms that
will make us sick. Those guys can release substances to change our genes ~~~~ Kto top
Keratinocytes
The predominant cell type in the epidermis, the outermost layer of the skin, constituting 90% of the cells found
there. Those keratinocytes found in the basal layer (stratum basale) of the skin are sometimes referred to
as "basal cells" or "basal keratinocytes"Kupffer cells
Kupffer cells, also known as Browicz-Kupffer cells and stellate macrophages, are specialized macrophages located
in the liver lining the walls of the sinusoids that form part of the reticuloendothelial system (RES)
(or mononuclear phagocyte system). ~~~~ L
Labrocyte
More commonly known as a mast cell Langerhans cells
see dendritic cells Leptin
a hormone made by adipose cells that helps to regulate energy balance by inhibiting hunger. Leptin is opposed by the
actions of the hormone ghrelin, the "hunger hormone" Leukocyte
White blood cells (WBCs), also called leukocytes or leucocytes, are the cells of the immune system that are
involved in protecting the body against both infectious disease and foreign invaders. All leukocytes are produced
and derived from a multipotent cell in the bone marrow known as a hematopoietic stem cell. Leukocytes are found
throughout the body, including the blood and lymphatic system
The innate leukocytes include: Natural killer cells, mast cells, eosinophils, basophils; and the
phagocytic cells including macrophages, neutrophils, and dendritic cells Leukotrienes
A chemical factor produced during inflammation which sensitizes pain receptors, causes vasodilation of the
blood vessels at the scene, and attracts phagocytes, especially neutrophils Ligand
In biochemistry and pharmacology, a ligand is a substance (usually a small molecule) that forms a complex with a
biomolecule to serve a biological purpose. In protein-ligand binding, the ligand is usually a signal-triggering
molecule, binding to a site on a target protein Lipid
Lipids are a group of naturally occurring molecules that include fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble
vitamins (such as vitamins A, D, E, and K), monoglycerides, diglycerides,
triglycerides, phospholipids, and others. The main biological functions of lipids include storing
energy, signaling, and acting as structural components of cell membranes Long QT syndrome
A rare inherited or acquired heart condition Long-term memory (active)
In general, active immunity is long-term and can be acquired by infection followed by B cells and T cells activation, or
artificially acquired by vaccines, in a process called immunization Lymphocytesto top
White blood cells that carry out the adaptive immune response; these include the lymphocytes known as B cells and T cells;
lymphocytes are a subset of leukocyte Lymphoid cells
(get re-directed in Wikipedia to lymphocyte) Lymphatic system
The lymphatic system is part of the circulatory system, comprising a network of lymphatic vessels that carry a clear fluid
called lymph (from Latin lympha meaning water) directionally towards the heart lymphoid organs
(get re-directed to lymphatic system) Lymphoid tissue
(get re-directed to lymphatic system) Lyposomic
(no definition in Wikipedia) Lyse
Bursting of a cell. Lysis refers to the breaking down of a cell, often by viral, enzymic, or osmotic mechanisms that
compromise its integrity. A fluid containing the contents of lysed cells is called a "lysate". Lysosome
The lysosome contains enzymes and acids that kill and digest the particle or organism (the pathogen) ~~~~ M
Macrophageto top
(from Wikipedia - innate system)
Macrophages, from the Greek, meaning "large eaters," are large phagocytic leukocytes, which are able to move
outside of the vascular system by moving across the walls of capillary vessels and entering the areas between cells in pursuit of
invading pathogens. In tissues, organ-specific macrophages are differentiated from phagocytic cells present in the blood
called monocytes. Macrophages are the most efficient phagocytes, and can phagocytose substantial numbers of bacteria or
other cells or microbes. The binding of bacterial molecules to receptors on the surface of a macrophage triggers it to engulf
and destroy the bacteria through the generation of a “respiratory burst”, causing the release of reactive oxygen species.
Pathogens also stimulate the macrophage to produce chemokines, which summons other cells to the site of infection
(from Wikipedia - adaptive system)
Macrophages, are a type of white blood cell that engulfs and digests cellular debris, foreign substances, microbes,
and cancer cells in a process called phagocytosis. They are found in essentially all tissues, where they patrol for
potential pathogens by amoeboid movement. They play a critical role in non-specific defense (innate immunity),
and also help initiate specific defense mechanisms (adaptive immunity) by recruiting other immune cells such as
lymphocytes.
In humans, dysfunctional macrophages cause severe diseases such as chronic granulomatous disease that
result in frequent infections Magnetic Resonance Imaging
MRI scanners use strong magnetic fields and radio waves to form images of the body. The technique is widely used in hospitals
for medical diagnosis, staging of disease and for follow-up without exposure to ionizing radiation Major Histocompatibility Complex
The major histocompatibility complex (MHC) is a set of cell surface molecules encoded by a large gene family which
controls a major part of the immune system in all vertebrates. The major function of MHCs are to bind to
peptide fragments derived from pathogens and display them on the cell surface for recognition by the
appropriate T-cells. MHC molecules mediate interactions of leukocytes, also called white blood cells (WBCs), which
are immune cells, with other leukocytes or with body cells. The MHC determines compatibility of donors for
organ transplant, as well as one's susceptibility to an autoimmune disease via crossreacting immunization.
In humans, the MHC is also called the human leukocyte antigen (HLA).
In a cell, protein molecules of the host's own phenotype or of other biologic entities are continually synthesized
and degraded. Each MHC molecule on the cell surface displays a molecular fraction of a protein, called epitope.
The presented antigen can be either 'self' or 'nonself'. In its entirety, the MHC population is like a meter
indicating the balance of proteins within the cell Mannose
Mannose is a sugar monomer of the aldohexose series of carbohydrates. Mannose is a C-2 epimer of glucose. Mannose
is important in human metabolism, especially in the glycosylation of certain proteins. Several congenital disorders
of glycosylation are associated with mutations in enzymes involved in mannose metabolism MARCoNS Mast cells
Mast cells are a type of innate immune cell that reside in connective tissue and in the mucous membranes. They are
intimately associated with wound healing and defense against pathogens, but are also often associated with allergy and
anaphylaxis. When activated, mast cells rapidly release characteristic granules, rich in histamine and
heparin, along with various hormonal mediators, and chemokines, or chemotactic cytokines into the
environment Mastocytesto top
A mast cell (also known as a mastocyte or a labrocyte) is derived from the myeloid stem cell and a part of the
immune system that contains many granules rich in histamine and heparin. Although best known for their role in
allergy and anaphylaxis, mast cells play an important protective role as well, being intimately involved in
wound healing and defense against pathogens Matrixin
A class of enzymes that belong to the zinc-metalloproteinases family Matrix MetalloPeptidase 9 (MMP9)
A matrixin, a class of enzymes that belong to the zinc-metalloproteinases family involved in the degradation of the extracellular matrix.
In humans the MMP9 gene Mediate
Generally - to manage/control/modify; also dispute resolution Melanocyte
Melanocytes are melanin-producing cells located in the bottom layer (the stratum basale) of the skin's epidermis,
the middle layer of the eye, the inner ear, meninges, bones, and heart. Melanin is the pigment
primarily responsible for skin color Melanocyte-stimulating hormone
a hormone produced in the pituitary gland, and related to skin pigmentation Melatonin
Melatonin is a substance found in animals, plants, fungi and bacteria. In animals it is a hormone that anticipates the
daily onset of darkness. Melatonin is involved in the entrainment (synchronization) of the circadian rhythms
of physiological functions including sleep timing, blood pressure regulation, seasonal reproduction and many others Memory B Cell
Memory B cells are a B cell sub-type that are formed within germinal centers following primary infection and are important
in generating an accelerated and more robust antibody-mediated immune response in the case of re-infection (also known
as a secondary immune response) Memory cells
Upon a later encounter with the same antigen, memory cells quickly differentiate into effector cells,
dramatically shortening the time required to mount an effective response by the acquired immune system Memory phenotype
(Wikipedia has no specific definition Memory T Cell
Memory T cells are a subset of infection - as well as potentially cancer-fighting T cells (also known as a T lymphocyte)
that have previously encountered and responded to their cognate antigen; thus, the term antigen-experienced T cell is
often applied. Such T cells can recognize foreign invaders, such as bacteria or viruses, as well as cancer cells.
Memory T cells have become "experienced" by having encountered antigen during a prior infection, encounter with cancer,
or previous vaccination. At a second encounter with the invader, memory T cells can reproduce to mount a faster and
stronger immune response than the first time the immune system responded to the invader Metabolite
Metabolites are the intermediates and products of metabolism. The term metabolite is usually restricted to small
molecules. Metabolites have various functions, including fuel, structure, signaling, stimulatory
and inhibitory effects on enzymes, catalytic activity of their own (usually as a cofactor to an enzyme),
defense, and interactions with other organisms (e.g. pigments, odorants, and pheromones meninges
The meninges are the membranes that envelop the brain and spinal cord of the central nervous system. In mammals,
the meninges consist of three layers: the dura mater, the arachnoid mater, and the pia mater. The primary
function of the meninges and of the cerebrospinal fluid is to protect the central nervous system metastasis
Metastasis is the spread of a cancer or disease from one organ or part to another not directly connected with it. The new
occurrences of disease thus generated are referred to as metastases Methylation
Methylation denotes the addition of a methyl group to a substrate or the substitution of an atom or group by a methyl group.
In biological systems, methylation is catalyzed by enzymes; such methylation can be involved in modification of
heavy metals, regulation of gene expression, regulation of protein function, and RNA processing MHC class I molecule
MHC class I is expressed by all host cells MHC class II molecule
MHC (major histocompatibility complex) class II molecules are a family of molecules normally found only on
antigen-presenting cells such as dendritic cells, mononuclear phagocytes, some endothelial cells, thymic epithelial
cells, and B cells Microscopic interstitial edema
Fluid in between cells in the brain Mitochondria
A double membrane-bound organelle found in most eukaryotic cells. Mitochondria range from 0.5 to 1.0 μm in diameter.
A considerable variation can be seen in the structure and size of this organelle. Unless specifically stained, they
are not visible. These structures are described as "the powerhouse of the cell" because they generate most of
the cell's supply of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), used as a source of chemical energy. In addition to
supplying cellular energy, mitochondria are involved in other tasks, such as signaling, cellular
differentiation, and cell death, as well as maintaining control of the cell cycle and cell growth. Moities
? Mold Allergyto top
A broad term including a condition with possibly life-threatening results, but generally indicating less
than lethal symptoms as result of exposure to mold toxins Mold Avoidance
A strategy for confronting any of the variety of mold illnesses by simply avoiding exposure to mold spores and
other sources of the mold's mycotoxins Mold-Sensitive, Mold-Sensitized
A condition in which one has become particularly sensitive to a specific form of indoor mold, indicating that
this specific mold has successfully compromised the immune system; typically by chronic and significant exposure
of the person to spores (its biotoxins) from this one particular mold Monocyte
Monocytes are a type of white blood cell (leukocytes). They are the largest of all leukocytes. They are
part of the innate immune system of vertebrates including all mammals (humans included), birds, reptiles,
and fish. They play multiple roles in immune function. Such roles include: (1) replenishing resident
macrophages under normal states, and (2) in response to inflammation signals, monocytes can move
quickly (approx. 8–12 hours) to sites of infection in the tissues and divide/differentiate into macrophages
and dendritic cells to elicit an immune response Monotreme
Monotremes are mammals that lay eggs (Prototheria) instead of giving birth to live young like marsupials
(Metatheria) and placental mammals (Eutheria). The only surviving examples of monotremes are all indigenous
to Australia and New Guinea, although there is evidence that they were once more widespread. The existing
monotreme species are the platypus and four species of echidnas (or spiny anteaters Morphology
A branch of biology dealing with the study of the form and structure of organisms and their specific structural features Myasthenia gravis Mycotoxin
A toxic secondary metabolite produced by organisms of the fungi kingdom, commonly known as molds. One mold species
may produce many different mycotoxins, and the same mycotoxin may be produced by several species. The reason for
the production of mycotoxins is not yet known; they are not necessary for the growth or the development of the fungi.
Because mycotoxins weaken the receiving host, the fungus may use them as a strategy to better the environment for further
fungal proliferation. The production of toxins depends on the surrounding intrinsic and extrinsic environments and the
toxins vary greatly in their severity, depending on the organism infected and its susceptibility, metabolism,
and defense mechanisms. Some of the health effects found in animals and humans include death, identifiable diseases
or health problems, weakened immune systems without specificity to a toxin, and as allergens or irritants.
Major groups of mycotoxins include:
Aflatoxins - produced by the Aspergillus species of fungi. The umbrella term aflatoxin refers to four different types
of mycotoxins produced, which are B1, B2, G1, and G2
Ochratoxin - produced by Penicillium and Aspergillus species. Come in three secondary metabolite forms;
A, B, and C
Citrinin - identified in over a dozen species of Penicillium and several species of Aspergillus
Ergot (Alkaloids) - compounds produced as a toxic mixture of alkaloids in the sclerotia of species of Claviceps
Patulin - produced by the P. expansum, Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Paecilomyces fungal species
Fusarium - produced by over 50 species of Fusarium ~~~~ N
Nadir Natural killer cellsto top
Natural killer cells, or NK cells, are a component of the innate immune system that does not directly attack invading
microbes. Rather, NK cells destroy compromised host cells, such as tumor cells or virus-infected cells,
recognizing such cells by a condition known as "missing self." This term describes cells with abnormally low levels of a
cell-surface marker called MHC I (Major Histocompatibility Complex) - a situation that can arise in viral infections of
host cells. They were named "natural killer" because of the initial notion that they do not require activation
in order to kill cells that are "missing self." For many years, it was unclear how NK cell recognize tumor cells
and infected cells. It is now known that the MHC makeup on the surface of those cells is altered and the NK cells become
activated through recognition of "missing self". Normal body cells are not recognized and attacked by NK cells because
they express intact self MHC antigens. Those MHC antigens are recognized by killer cell immunoglobulin receptors (KIR)
that, in essence, put the brakes on NK cells. The NK-92 cell line does not express KIR and is developed for tumor
therapy Naive cell
A naive cell is yet to be activiated or differentiated into its special purpose. Naive cytotoxic T cells are activated
when their T-cell receptor (TCR) strongly interacts with a peptide-bound MHC class I molecule Necrosis
Necrosis ("death, the stage of dying, the act of killing") is a form of cell injury that results in the premature
death of cells in living tissue by autolysis. Necrosis is caused by factors external to the cell or tissue, such as
infection, toxins, or trauma that result in the unregulated digestion of cell component Nebulizor
A drug delivery device used to administer medication in the form of a mist inhaled into the lungs nephrology
Nephrology is a specialty of medicine and pediatrics that concerns itself with the study of normal kidney function, kidney
problems, the treatment of kidney problems and renal replacement therapy (dialysis and kidney transplantation) neurogenesis
Neurogenesis (birth of neurons) is the process by which neurons are generated from the neural stem cells and
progenitor cells. Neurogenesis is most active during pre-natal development, and is responsible for populating
the growing brain with neurons Neurohypophysial
The neurohypophysial hormones form a family of structurally and functionally related peptide hormones. Their main
representatives are oxytocin and vasopressin. They are named for being secreted by the neurohypophysis, i.e.
the posterior pituitary gland (hypophysis refers to the pituitary gland), itself a neuronal projection from the
hypothalamus Neuroimmune illness/disease
Disorder of the neuroimmune system (autoimmune diseases; hypersensitivities; immune deficiency) Neuroimmune system
The immune system and those components of the nervous system that modulate immune response. In practice, the neuroimmune system
also includes hormonal signals and cytokines that participate in signalling between the immune and nervous systems Neuropeptide
Neuropeptides are small protein-like molecules (peptides) used by neurons to communicate with each other.
They are neuronal signaling molecules that influence the activity of the brain in specific ways. Different
neuropeptides are involved in a wide range of brain functions, including analgesia, reward, food intake,
metabolism, reproduction, social behaviors, learning, and memory Neurotoxin
Substances that are poisonous or destructive to nerve tissue., Neurotoxins are an extensive class of exogenous chemical
neurological insults which can adversely affect function in both developing and mature nervous tissue., The term can
also be used to classify endogenous compounds which when abnormally concentrated can prove neurologically toxic.,
Though neurotoxins are often neurologically destructive,, their ability to specifically target neural components
is important in the study of nervous systems Neurotransmitter
Neurotransmitters are endogenous chemicals that transmit signals across a synapse from one neuron, (nerve cell),
to another, "target", neuron., Neurotransmitters are released from synaptic vesicles in synapses into
the synaptic cleft,, where they are received by receptors on other synapses Neutrophils
Neutrophils, along with two other cell types; eosinophils and basophils (see below), are known as granulocytes
due to the presence of granules in their cytoplasm, or as polymorphonuclear cells (PMNs) due to their distinctive
lobed nuclei. Neutrophil granules contain a variety of toxic substances that kill or inhibit growth of bacteria and fungi.
Similar to macrophages, neutrophils attack pathogens by activating a respiratory burst. The main products of the neutrophil
respiratory burst are strong oxidizing agents including hydrogen peroxide, free oxygen radicals and hypochlorite. Neutrophils
are the most abundant type of phagocyte, normally representing 50 to 60% of the total circulating leukocytes, and are usually
the first cells to arrive at the site of an infection. The bone marrow of a normal healthy adult produces more than 100 billion
neutrophils per day, and more than 10 times that many per day during acute inflammation. NK receptor
Natural Killer receptor cell Non-cytolytic antibodies
Cytolysis, or osmotic lysis, occurs when a cell bursts due to an osmotic imbalance that has caused excess water to move into
the cell. Non-cytolytic means the antibody kills the cell by some other means Non-nucleated cell
With the exception of non-nucleated cells (including erythrocytes), all cells are capable of presenting antigen "Non-Self"to top
Exogenous (non-self) antigens are antigens that have entered the body from the outside, for example by inhalation, ingestion,
or injection. The immune system's response to exogenous antigens is often subclinical. By endocytosis or phagocytosis,
exogenous antigens are taken into the antigen-presenting cells (APCs) and processed into fragments. APCs then present the
fragments to T helper cells (CD4+) by the use of class II histocompatibility molecules on their surface. Some T cells are
specific for the peptide:MHC complex. They become activated and start to secrete cytokines. Cytokines are substances that
can activate cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL), antibody-secreting B cells, macrophages, and other particles.
Some antigens start out as exogenontigens, and later become endogenous (for example, intracellular viruses).
Intracellular antigens can again be released back into circulation upon the destruction of the infected cell Non-specific immune system
The innate immune system ~~~~ O
opioid
An opioid is any chemical such as morphine that resembles opiates in its pharmacological effects. The painkiller effects
of opioids are due to decreased perception of pain, decreased reaction to pain, as well as increased pain
tolerance. Opioids can cause cough suppression, which can be both an indication for opioid administration
or an unintended side effect Opsonin
Coating attached to an allergen so it can be recognized and disabled Opsonizing
The coating of an allergen in the process of disabling it Organelle
An organelle is a specialized subunit within a cell that has a specific function. Individual organelles are usually
separately enclosed within their own lipid bilayers. The name organelle comes from the idea that these structures
are to cells what an organ is to the body, hence the name organelle Obstructive Sleep Apnea
Obstructive sleep apnea is the most common type of sleep apnea and is caused by obstruction of the upper airway. It is
characterized by repetitive pauses in breathing during sleep, despite the effort to breathe, and is usually
associated with a reduction in blood oxygen saturation. These pauses in breathing, called "apneas" (literally,
"without breath"), typically last 20 to 40 seconds Ochratoxin
A group of mycotoxins produced by some Aspergillus species of mold and some Penicillium species. Ochratoxin A is the most
prevalent and relevant fungal toxin of this group, while ochratoxins B and C are of lesser importance. opsonin
An opsonin is any molecule that enhances phagocytosis by marking an antigen for an immune response (i.e., causes the phagocyte to "relish" the marked cell).
However, the term is usually used in reference to molecules that act as binding enhancers for the process of
phagocytosis, especially antibodies, which coat the negatively charged molecules on the membrane. Molecules
that activate the complement system are also considered opsonins Optic nerve
The optic nerve, also known as cranial nerve II, is a paired nerve that transmits visual information from the
retina to the brain. The optic nerve is derived from optic stalks during the seventh week of development and is composed
of retinal ganglion cell axons and glial cells Orthostatic intolerance
The development of symptoms when standing upright which are relieved when sitting back down again. There are many
types of orthostatic intolerance. OI can be a subcategory of dysautonomia, a disorder of the autonomic nervous
system occurring when an individual stands up Osmolality ~~~~ Pto top
Passive (immunological) memory
The innate immune system Pathogen
A pathogen in the oldest and broadest sense is anything that can produce disease. Typically the term is used to describe
an infectious agent (colloquially known as a germ) — a microorganism, in the widest sense such as a virus, bacterium,
prion, fungus or protozoan, that causes disease in its host Pathogenesis
The pathogenesis of a disease is the mechanism that causes the disease. The term can also describe the origin and
development of the disease, and whether it is acute, chronic, or recurrent Pathogen-specific receptor
In acquired immunity, pathogen-specific receptors are "acquired" during the lifetime of the organism (whereas in innate
immunity pathogen-specific receptors are already encoded in the germline) Pattern recognition receptor
Pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) are a primitive part of the immune system. They are proteins expressed by cells
of the innate immune system to identify pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), which are associated with
microbial pathogens or cellular stress, as well as damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), which are
associated with cell components released during cell damage Peptide
A protein fragment Perforin
A cytotoxin that, along with granulysin, forms pores in the target cell's plasma membrane, allowing ions and water
to flow into the infected cell, and causing it to burst or lyse Perfuse
E.G.: The alveoli of the lungs are perfused with blood as normal, but ventilation (the supply of air)
fails to supply the region
Peristalsis
Peristalsis is a radially symmetrical contraction and relaxation of muscles that propagates in a wave down a tube,
in an anterograde direction.
In much of a digestive tract such as the human gastrointestinal tract, smooth muscle tissue contracts in sequence
to produce a peristaltic wave, which propels a ball of food (called a bolus while in the esophagus and upper
gastrointestinal tract and chyme in the stomach) along the tract. Peristaltic movement comprises relaxation
of circular smooth muscles, then their contraction behind the chewed material to keep it from moving backward,
then longitudinal contraction to push it forward Perseveration
The repetition of a particular response, such as a word, phrase, or gesture, despite the absence or cessation of a
stimulus, usually caused by brain injury or other organic disorder Phagocyte cellsto top
The word 'phagocyte' literally means 'eating cell'. These are immune cells that engulf, i.e. phagocytose,
pathogens or particles. To engulf a particle or pathogen, a phagocyte extends portions of its plasma membrane,
wrapping the membrane around the particle until it is enveloped (i.e., the particle is now inside the cell). Once
inside the cell, the invading pathogen is contained inside an endosome, which merges with a lysosome. The lysosome
contains enzymes and acids that kill and digest the particle or organism. In general, phagocytes patrol the body
searching for pathogens, but are also able to react to a group of highly specialized molecular signals produced by other
cells, called cytokines. The phagocytic cells of the immune system include macrophages, neutrophils,
and dendritic cells Phagocytosis
(Removal of cells) Phagocytosis of the hosts’ own cells is common as part of regular tissue development and maintenance. When host cells die,
either internally induced by processes involving programmed cell death (also called apoptosis) or caused by cell
injury due to a bacterial or viral infection, phagocytic cells are responsible for their removal from the affected site.
By helping to remove dead cells preceding growth and development of new healthy cells, phagocytosis is an important part of
the healing process following tissue injury. Pharmacological
Pharmacology is the branch of medicine and biology concerned with the study of drug action, where a drug can be broadly
defined as any man-made, natural, or endogenous (from within body) molecule which exerts a biochemical
and/or physiological effect on the cell, tissue, organ, or organism Phenotype
A phenotype is the composite of an organism's observable characteristics or traits (based on its genotype), such as
its morphology, development, biochemical or physiological properties, phenology, behavior, and products
of behavior (such as a person's eye color) Placental syncytium
A syncytium is a multinucleated cell that can result from multiple cell fusions of uninuclear cells (i.e., cells with a
single nucleus Plasma proteins
Plasma proteins, also termed serum proteins or blood proteins, are proteins present in blood plasma. They serve many different
functions, including transport of lipids, hormones, vitamins and metals in the circulatory system and the regulation of acellular
activity and functioning and in the immune system. Functions in the immune system include:
trigger the recruitment of inflammatory cells
"tag" pathogens for destruction by other cells by opsonizing, or coating, the surface of the pathogen
form holes in the plasma membrane of the pathogen, resulting in cytolysis of the pathogen cell/li>
rid the body of neutralised antigen-antibody complexes
Plasma cell
Plasma cells are short-lived cells (2–3 days) that secrete antibodies. These antibodies bind to antigens, making them
easier targets for phagocytes, and trigger the complement cascade. About 10% of plasma cells will survive to become long-lived
antigen-specific memory B cells. Plieotropy Polymorphonuclear cells (PMNs)
Also known as Neutrophils, or as polymorphonuclear cells (PMNs) due to their distinctive
lobed nuclei. Probiotics
Microorganisms that are believed to provide health benefits when consumed Prostaglandinto top
A chemical factor produced during inflammation which sensitizes pain receptors, causes vasodilation of the
blood vessels at the scene, and attracts phagocytes, especially neutrophils Proteomics
The large-scale study of proteins, particularly their structures and functions Proteolysis
Proteolysis is the breakdown of proteins into smaller polypeptides or amino acids. In general, this occurs by the
hydrolysis of the peptide bond, and is most commonly achieved by cellular enzymes called proteases, but may also
occur by intramolecular digestion, as well as by non-enzymatic methods such as the action of mineral acids and heat Psychosomatic
Psychosomatic medicine is an interdisciplinary medical field exploring the relationships among social, psychological, and
behavioral factors on bodily processes and quality of life in humans and animals ~~~~ Q
~~~~ R
RAG transposon
A transposable element (TE or transposon) is a DNA sequence that can change its position within the genome, sometimes
creating or reversing mutations and altering the cell's genome size. Transposition often results in duplication of the TE Random Somatic Diversification
Each antibody is specifically selected after binding to a certain antigen because of random somatic diversification in the
antibody complementarity determining regions (a common analogy used to describe this is the fit between a lock and a key)
(see somatic) Receptor
A receptor is a protein molecule usually found embedded within the plasma membrane surface of a cell that receives chemical
signals from outside the cell. When such chemical signals bind to a receptor, they cause some form of cellular/tissue
response, e.g. a change in the electrical activity of the cell. In this sense, a receptor is a protein molecule
that recognises and responds to endogenous chemical signals.
An immune receptor (or immunologic receptor) is a receptor, usually on a cell membrane, which binds to a
substance (for example, a cytokine) and causes a response in the immune system Recombination-activating gene
(RAGs) that rearrange Ig and TCR gene segments in jawed vertebrates. Regulatory T cell (Treg)
A third type of T lymphocyte which limits and suppresses the immune system, and may control aberrant immune responses
to self-antigens; an important mechanism in controlling the development of autoimmune diseases Renal
Renal function, in nephrology, is an indication of the state of the kidney and its role in renal physiology Reticuloendothelial
The mononuclear phagocyte system (MPS) (also called Reticuloendothelial System or Macrophage System) is a
part of the immune system that consists of the phagocytic cells located in reticular connective tissue. The cells are
primarily monocytes and macrophages, and they accumulate in lymph nodes and the spleen Retrovirusto top
Retroviridae is a family of enveloped viruses that replicate in a host cell through the process of reverse transcription.
A retrovirus is a single-stranded RNA virus that stores its nucleic acid in the form of an mRNA genome (including the 5'
cap and 3' PolyA tail) and, as an obligate parasite, targets a host cell. Once inside the host cell cytoplasm, the
virus uses its own reverse transcriptase enzyme to produce DNA from its RNA genome, the reverse of the usual pattern,
thus retro (backwards) ~~~~ S
Sebaceous glands
The sebaceous glands are microscopic exocrine glands in the skin that secrete an oily or waxy matter, called sebum,
to lubricate and waterproof the skin and hair of mammals. In humans, they are found in the greatest number on the
face and scalp, and are also found on all parts of the skin except the palms of the hands and soles of the feet. "Self"
In the context of the immune system, "Self" refers to any entity generated by the host "Self"-receptor
Called the Major histocompatibility complex, or MHC (also known in humans as Human leukocyte antigen (HLA)) Sepsis
Sepsis is whole-body inflammation caused by an infection Serine protease
Serine proteases (or serine endopeptidases) are enzymes that cleave peptide bonds in proteins, in which serine serves as
the nucleophilic amino acid at the (enzyme's) active site. In humans, they are responsible for co-ordinating various
physiological functions, including digestion, immune response, blood coagulation and reproduction Serotonin
A chemical factor produced during inflammation which sensitizes pain receptors, causes vasodilation of the
blood vessels at the scene, and attracts phagocytes, especially neutrophils Short-term memory (passive)
Passive memory is usually short-term, lasting between a few days and several months. Newborn infants have had no prior
exposure to microbes and are particularly vulnerable to infection. Several layers of passive protection are provided by the
mother. In utero, maternal IgG is transported directly across the placenta, so that, at birth, human
babies have high levels of antibodies, with the same range of antigen specificities as their mother. Breast milk contains
antibodies (mainly IgA) that are transferred to the gut of the infant, protecting against bacterial infections,
until the newborn can synthesize its own antibodies.
This is passive immunity because the fetus does not actually make any memory cells or antibodies: It only borrows them.
Short-term passive immunity can also be transferred artificially from one individual to another via antibody-rich serum. Sialadenitisto top
Sialadenitis is inflammation of a salivary gland. It may be subdivided temporally into acute, chronic and recurrent forms Sinusoidto top
The sine wave or sinusoid is a mathematical curve that describes a smooth repetitive oscillation. It is named after the
function sine, of which it is the graph. It occurs often in pure and applied mathematics, as well as physics, engineering,
signal processing and many other fields Somatic cells
The term somatic is often used in biology to refer to the cells of the body in contrast to the germ line cells which usually give
rise to the gametes (ovum or sperm). These somatic cells are diploid containing two copies of each chromosome, whereas the germ
cells are haploid as they only contain one copy of each chromosome. Although under normal circumstances all somatic cells in an
organism contain identical DNA, they develop a variety of tissue-specific characteristics. This process is called differentiation,
through epigenetic and regulatory alterations. The grouping of like cells and tissues creates the foundation for organs. Somatic hypermutation
A process of accelerated somatic mutations Somnipathy
A sleep disorder, or somnipathy, is a medical disorder of the sleep patterns of a person or animal. Some sleep
disorders are serious enough to interfere with normal physical, mental, social and emotional functioning.
Polysomnography and actigraphy are tests commonly ordered for some sleep disorders "Stranger" signal
Generated by a threshold level of antigen; this signal activates dendritic cells Stem cell
Stem cells are undifferentiated biological cells that can differentiate into specialized cells and can divide (through mitosis)
to produce more stem cells. They are found in multicellular organisms Stem cell
Stem cells are undifferentiated biological cells that can differentiate into specialized cells and can divide (through mitosis)
to produce more stem cells. They are found in multicellular organisms Steroids
Steroids comprise a group of cyclic organic compounds. Hundreds of distinct steroids are found in animals, fungi,
plants, and elsewhere, and specific steroids underlie proper structure and function in many biological processes.
Their core tetracyclic ring structure is synthesized in each organism by biochemical pathways that involve cyclization of a
thirty-carbon chain, squalene, into an intermediate, either lanosterol or cycloartenol. From such
intermediates, organisms then derive critical steroids such as cholesterol, the sex hormones estradiol and
testosterone, and bile acids. Based on such structures, synthetic and medicinal chemists synthesize novel
steroids for use as drugs Subclinical>
In medicine, a disease is considered asymptomatic (or subclinical) if a patient is a carrier for a disease or infection but
experiences no symptoms ~~~~ T
T cell receptor
A molecule found on the surface of T lymphocytes (or T cells) that is responsible for recognizing antigens bound to
major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules T cellsto top
One of the major types of lymphocytes (white blood cells); T cells are intimately involved in cell-mediated immune responses.
Each type of T cell is specially equipped to deal with each unique toxin or bacterial and viral pathogen, depending,
in part, on the context in which the APC (antigent-presenting cell) first encountered the antigen. T cells recognize
their cognate antigen in a processed form – as a peptide in the context of an MHC molecule Teleology Th1
An effector CD4+ T helper cell response which can be induced by a professional APC (antigent-presenting cell). The Th1 response
is characterized by the production of Interferon-gamma, which activates the bactericidal activities of macrophages,
and induces B cells to make opsonizing (coating) and complement-fixing antibodies, and leads to
"cell-mediated immunity". In general, Th1 responses are more effective against intracellular pathogens
(viruses and bacteria that are inside host cells) Th2
An effector CD4+ T helper cell response which can be induced by a professional APC (antigent-presenting cell). The Th2 response
is characterized by the release of Interleukin 4, which results in the activation of B cells to make neutralizing
non-cytolytic antibodies, leading to "humoral immunity". Th2 responses are more effective against extracellular
bacteria, parasites including helminths and toxins. Like cytotoxic T cells, most of the CD4+ helper cells
will die upon resolution of infection, with a few remaining as CD4+ memory cells. Th17
A subset of T helper cells producing interleukin 17 (IL-17). They are developmentally distinct from Th1 and Th2 cells.
They create inflammation and tissue injury in autoimmune diseases such as multiple sclerosis. Thymus
The thymus is a specialized organ of the immune system. Within the thymus, T cells or T lymphocytes mature. T cells are
critical to the adaptive immune system, where the body adapts specifically to foreign invaders. Each T cell attacks a
specific foreign substance which it identifies with its receptor. T cells have receptors which are generated by randomly
shuffling gene segments. Each T cell attacks a different antigen. T cells that attack the body's own proteins are
eliminated in the thymus. Thymic epithelial cells express major proteins from elsewhere in the body Thymocytes
Develop into T cells in the thymus TNF
A cytokines produced by macrophages and other cells of the innate immune system which mediate the inflammatory response Toll-like receptor
A pattern recognition receptor T progenitorto top
A progenitor cell is a biological cell that, like a stem cell, has a tendency to differentiate into a specific
type of cell, but is already more specific Toxication
Toxication is the process of metabolism in which the metabolite of a compound is more toxic than the parent drug or chemical.
A parent drug or chemical that was previously non-toxic may be called a protoxin Translocon form
A type of arrangement of gene segments Trichothecenes
A very large family of chemically related mycotoxins produced by various species of mold. These mycotoxins are most strongly
associated with chronic and fatal toxic effects in animals and humans. A member of the Fusarium group of mycotoxins ~~~~ U
~~~~ V
Vagus nerve
The vagus nerve, historically cited as the pneumogastric nerve, is the tenth cranial nerve or CN X, and interfaces
with parasympathetic control of the heart and digestive tract. The vagus nerves are paired, however they are normally
referred to in the singular Variable lymphocyte receptor
Variable lymphocyte receptors (VLRs) belong to the Leucine-rich repeat (LRR) family and mediate adaptive immune
responses in the jawless vertebrates, lampreys and hagfish VascularThe word vascular means relating to the blood vessels. Avascular refers to being without
(blood) vessels. The blood vessels are the part of the circulatory system that transports blood throughout the human
`body. There are three major types of blood vessels: the arteries, which carry the blood away from the heart;
the capillaries, which enable the actual exchange of water and chemicals between the blood and the tissues; and the
veins, which carry blood from the capillaries back toward the heart Vasculogenesis
Vasculogenesis is the process of blood vessel formation occurring by a de novo production of endothelial cells. Though
similar to angiogenesis, the two are different in one aspect: The term angiogenesis denotes the formation of new
blood vessels from pre-existing ones, whereas vasculogenesis is the term used for the formation of new blood vessels
when there are no pre-existing ones
Vasoactive intestinal peptide
(VIP) is a regulatory neuropeptide produced naturally in the human body. VIP does many things. It is a really important
neuroregulator. One of the things that it does that is of supreme importance is that it regulates inflammation in the body
Vasodilation
Vasodilation (or vasodilatation) refers to the widening of blood vessels. It results from relaxation of smooth muscle
cells within the vessel walls, in particular in the large veins, large arteries, and smaller arterioles. In essence,
the process is the opposite of vasoconstriction, which is the narrowing of blood vessels V(D)J recombination
An irreversible genetic recombination of antigen receptor gene segments Vector-borne
In epidemiology, a vector is any agent (person, animal or microorganism) that carries and transmits
an infectious pathogen into another living organism Viral fusion protein
An example of a virul fusion proteins are those which cause the formation of the placental syncytium in order to limit
the exchange of migratory cells between the developing embryo and the body of the mother. An immunodepressive action
was the initial normal behavior of the virus, similar to HIV. The fusion proteins were a way to spread the
infection to other cells by simply merging them with the infected one (HIV does this too). It is believed
that the ancestors of modern viviparous mammals evolved after an infection by this virus, enabling the fetus
to survive the immune system of the mother. Virulance
Virulence is, by MeSH definition, the degree of pathogenicity within a group or species of parasites as indicated
by case fatality rates and/or the ability of the organism to invade the tissues of the host. The pathogenicity of an
organism - its ability to cause disease - is determined by its virulence factors Viviparous mammalsto top
All mammals except Monotremes Vδ1 T cells
Gamma delta T cells (γδ T cells), represent a small subset of T cells that possess a distinct T-cell receptor
(TCR) on their surface. Most T cells are αβ (alpha beta) T cells with TCR composed of two glycoprotein chains
called α (alpha) and β (beta) TCR chains. In contrast, gamma delta (γδ) T cells
have a TCR that is made up of one γ (gamma) chain and one δ (delta) chain. This group of T cells
is usually much less common than αβ T cells, but are at their highest abundance in the gut mucosa, within a population
of lymphocytes known as intraepithelial lymphocytes (IELs) Vγ9/Vδ2 T cells
The major γδ T cell population in peripheral blood ~~~~ W
WDB
Water Damaged Building ~~~~ X
X-Code ~~~~ Y
γδ T cells
Like other 'unconventional' T cell subsets bearing invariant T cell receptors (TCRs), such as CD1d-restricted
Natural Killer T cells, γδ T cells exhibit characteristics that place them at the border between innate and adaptive immunity.
On one hand, γδ T cells may be considered a component of adaptive immunity in that they rearrange TCR genes to produce junctional
diversity and develop a memory phenotype. However, the various subsets may also be considered part of the innate immune
system where a restricted TCR or NK receptors may be used as a pattern recognition receptor. For example, according to this
paradigm, large numbers of Vγ9/Vδ2 T cells respond within hours to common molecules produced by microbes, and highly
restricted intraepithelial Vδ1 T cells will respond to stressed epithelial cells.
~~~~ Zto top
